Reserved Sequences (Keywords)

The following character sequences are considered reserved, and should be yield a distinct token (rather than be counted as an identifier).

and

bool

else

false

file

if

immutable

int

or

return

sink

thrash

true

void

while

Identifiers

Any sequence of one or more letters and/or digits, and/or underscores, starting with a letter or underscore, should be treated as an identifier token. Identifiers must not be reserved sequences, but may include a proper substring that is a reserved word, e.g. while1 is an identifier but while is not.

Integer Literals

Any sequence of of one or more digits yields an integer literal token as long as it is not part of an identifer or string.

String Literals

Any string literal (a sequence of zero or more string characters surrounded by double quotes) should yield a string literal token. A string character is either

• an escaped character: a backslash followed by any one of the following characters:
  1. n
  2. t
  3. a double quote
  4. another backslash
  or
• a single character other than newline or double quote or backslash.

Examples of legal string literals:

""
"&!88"
"use \n to denote a newline character"
"use \" to  for a quote and \\ for a backslash"

Examples of things that are not legal string literals:

"unterminated
"also unterminated \"
"backslash followed by space: \ is not allowed"
"bad escaped character: \a AND not terminated

Symbol Operators

Any of the following character symbol sequences constitute a distinct token:

=
:
,
+
-


==
>>
>
>=
[
<<


\\(-o-)//
{
<
<=
(
!


!=
--
++
]
}
)


;
...
/
*

Comments

Text starting with # up to the end of the line is a comment (except of course if those characters are inside a string literal). For example:

 
# this is a comment
# and so is # this
# and so is # this %$!#

The scanner should recognize and ignore comments (there is no COMMENT token).

Whitespace

Spaces, tabs, and newline characters are whitespace. Whitespace separates tokens and changes the character counter, but should otherwise be ignored (except inside a string literal).

Illegal Characters

Any character that is not whitespace and is not part of a token or comment is illegal.

Length Limits

No limit may be assumed on the lengths of identifiers, string literals, integer literals, comments, etc. other than those limits imposed by the underlying implementation of the compiler's host language.

For the most part, the token to produce should be self-explanatory. For example, the + symbol should produce the CROSS token, the -  symbol should produce the DASH token, etc. The set of tokens can be found in frontend.hh or in the switch in tokens.cpp. The LCURLY token refers to a left curly brace, {. the RCURLY refers to a right curly brace, }.

The lexical structure of Levi is fairly straightforward, and largely similar to C. There are a few notable details, some of which are departures from C:

• The sequence \\(-o-)// produces the THRASH token.
• The sequence ... produces the SINK token.
• The sequence >> and << produce INPUT and OUTPUT, respectively.
• The sequences thrash, and sink, are keywords of the language. They produce the THRASH, and SINK, tokens, respectively.
• The sequence file produces the FILE token
• The string && and || are NOT in the language . Instead "logical and" is represented by the string and and "logical or" is represented by the string or.

Notable Differences from C

While the canonical reference for Levi syntax is its context-free grammar, there are a couple of "standout" points which deserve special attention for their deviation from C:

i:int;
i = 4;

i:int;
fn : () void {
  i = 4;
}

     ofile << "hello";

     ifile >> var;

/*********************************************************************
 Grammar for programs in the Levi language
 ********************************************************************/
program         ::= globals

globals         ::= globals decl
                | /* epsilon */

decl		::= varDecl SEMICOL
       		 |  fnDecl

varDecl         ::= name COLON type
       		 |  name COLON type ASSIGN initializer

type            ::= datatype
                 |  IMMUTABLE datatype

datatype        ::= primtype LBRACKET INTLITERAL RBRACKET
                 |  primtype

primType        ::= INT
                 |  BOOL
                 |  FILE
                 |  VOID

fnDecl          ::= name COLON LPAREN maybeformals RPAREN type LCURLY stmtList RCURLY

maybeformals   ::= formalsList
                 |  /* epsilon */

formalsList     ::= formalDecl
                 |  formalsList COMMA formalDecl

formalDecl	::= name COLON type

stmtList        ::= stmtList stmt SEMICOL
                |   stmtList blockStmt
                |   /* epsilon */

blockStmt	::= WHILE LPAREN exp RPAREN LCURLY stmtList RCURLY
		| IF LPAREN exp RPAREN LCURLY stmtList RCURLY
		| IF LPAREN exp RPAREN LCURLY stmtList RCURLY ELSE LCURLY stmtList RCURLY

stmt            ::= varDecl
                | loc ASSIGN exp
                | callExp
                | loc POSTDEC
                | loc POSTINC
                | loc OUTPUT exp
                | loc INPUT loc
                | SINK name
                | RETURN exp
                | RETURN

exp             ::= exp DASH exp
                | exp CROSS exp
                | exp STAR exp
                | exp SLASH exp
                | exp AND exp
                | exp OR exp
                | exp EQUALS exp
                | exp NOTEQUALS exp
                | exp GREATER exp
                | exp GREATEREQ exp
                | exp LESS exp
                | exp LESSEQ exp
                | NOT exp
                | DASH term
                | term

callExp         ::=  loc LPAREN RPAREN   // fn call with no args
                | loc LPAREN actualsList RPAREN  // with args

actualsList     ::= exp
                | actualsList COMMA exp
                
term            ::= loc
                | literal
                | THRASH
                | LPAREN exp RPAREN
                | callExp

literal 	: INTLITERAL
                | STRINGLITERAL
                | TRUE
                | FALSE

litList		: literal
		| literal COMMA litList

initializer	: literal
		| LBRACKET litList RBRACKET

loc		::= name
		| loc LBRACKET exp RBRACKET

name           ::= ID

Any type is promotable to itself.

The following shows the atomic operands and the types that they are assigned:

• numeric literals (e.g. 7, 3) are of type int
• bool literals (i.e. true, false) are of type bool
• string literals are of string type
• identifiers have the type of their declaration, which is determined during name analysis

The operators in the language are divided into the following categories:

• logical: not, and, or
• arithmetic: plus, minus, times, divide, negation, postincrement, postdecrement
• equality: equals, not equals
• relational: less than (<), greater than (>), less then or equals (<=), greater than or equals (>=)
• indexing: index ([ ])
• assignment: assign (=)

The type rules of the language are as follows:

• logical operators and conditions are legal if and only if:

  • All operands are bool

  The result type is bool in legal cases, ERROR otherwise.

• arithmetic operations are legal if and only if:
  • Operands are both int - the result type is int

  In all illegal cases, the result type is ERROR.

• relational operations are legal if and only if:

  • Both operands are int

  The result type is bool in legal cases, ERROR otherwise.

• equality operations are legal if and only if:

  • Both operands are of the same primitive type
  and
  • Neither operand is a function type
  • Neither operand is an array

  The result type is bool in legal cases, ERROR otherwise.

• assignment operations are legal if and only if:

  • Both types are the same and the LHS is an lvalue - the result type is that of the LHS

  It is LEGAL to assign arrays of the same base type but different lengths regardless if the LHS or RHS is bigger

  The result type is that of the LHS operand in legal cases, ERROR otherwise.

• in >> operations are legal if and only if:

  • The operand is of int or bool .

• out << operations are legal if and only if:

  • The operand is of type int
  • The operand is of type bool
  • The operand is of type string

• indexing operations are legal if and only if:

  • The operand is int

  The result type is the base type of the array in legal cases, and ERROR otherwise.

• function calls are legal if and only if:

  • The identifier is of function type (i.e., the callee is actually a function).
  and
  • The number of actuals must match the number of formals.
  and
  • The type of each actual must match the type of the corresponding formal.

  If the identifier is not a function name, the result type is ERROR. Otherwise, it is the return type of the function even if the arguments are ill-typed.

• function returns: The follow rules hold for function returns:

  • A return statement in a void function may not have a value.
  • A return statement in a non-void function must have a value.
  • The return expression must match the function's declared type.

  It is LEGAL for a non-void function to skip a return statement. For example, this code is ok:

  f : () int {
    //I should return an int, but I don't
}